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Territorial dispute refers to an international conflict over the ownership of land, sea, or airspace between states. Such disputes can impact regional stability, and they typically involve high levels of diplomatic tension and occasionally military action. The proliferation of territorial disputes is particularly worrisome given the dominance of nuclear weapons in the world’s most powerful states and the fact that they have a tendency to escalate into full-blown international wars.

There is a broad literature on territorial disputes, but scholars have largely taken them for granted and focused more on the conditions that lead to their transformation from latent to active stages of conflict. For example, while most studies of territorial acquisitions emphasize a preference to take territory peacefully, it is far less clear how this preference arises. A key determinant seems to be the condition that territory is perceived as being valuable and therefore worth the effort to acquire.

Another factor is the degree to which a state’s political entitlement to territory is strengthened by its actions. This can be done by taking administrative measures that integrate contested territory into domestic jurisdiction, developing infrastructure projects in the region, or holding makeshift elections to increase the legitimacy of the claim.

Finally, a state’s economic interests may also be influential in its willingness to compromise in a territorial dispute. Derrick Frazier argues that the relative economic dependence of disputing states (with particular importance to major powers and those with significant trade links) is a major factor in mediation-initiation.

As ICNL’s Protest crackdown tracker shows, state lawmakers in Republican-controlled states have been quick to respond to the rise of new social movements with laws to suppress protests. In 2021, the worst year on record, 92 anti-protest bills were introduced, compared with just 52 in 2017, when we started our tracker. Yet these bills often fail to become law, and the majority of protests are not even subject to any laws aimed at them.

But that’s not stopping some politicians from trying to tamp down protests by calling them “hate America rallies” or warning that they will bring in foreign nationals to disrupt public order. Trump has specifically targeted Democratic-controlled cities in his efforts to send in the National Guard, though his attempts in Chicago, Portland, and New York City have been blocked by legal challenges.

Protesters across the country are heeding the call to come out this weekend for what is being billed as “No Kings” day of demonstrations. The group behind the event has emphasized that the marches are not about immigration or race, but are about fighting back against what they say is the encroaching authoritarianism of the Trump administration. It’s a movement they hope will spread.

Some demonstrators are taking precautions against the potential escalation of federal law enforcement action, including staying with groups and setting up meetup locations in case they get separated from their friends. Others are using encrypted communication apps to protect their privacy and prevent their calls or texts from being tracked.

The term Authoritarian rule refers to a form of government in which one person possesses unchecked power. It typically occurs when democratic institutions become ossified, citizens feel their voices are no longer heard through established parties and that elites are too removed from society. Individuals may then seek out authoritarian alternatives that promise to solve their problems directly.

Authoritarian projects cannot succeed without the cooperation or acquiescence of legislatures, courts, and other institutions designed to provide checks and balances. To that end, they often rewrite the rules or stack these competing institutions with lackeys and compliant allies. They also frequently justify their expansion of executive power with cults of personality and aggrandizement of the trappings of office while demonizing checks and balances as corrupt obstacles to the popular will.

In addition, these regimes often engage in what is known as “constitutional hardball.” This includes remaking electoral laws to favor their partisans or declaring national emergencies to seize broad powers. They may even scapegoat specific groups to create an “us versus them” dynamic that energizes their base and reinforces social solidarity.

Psychological studies have tried to make sense of why some people are amenable to authoritarian forms of leadership. One classic paper, The Authoritarian Personality, argued that some people have personality traits—such as a general willingness to submit to authority, a rigid cognitive style and conventional moral values—that can predispose them to supporting authoritarian forms of rule. However, this theory has since been called into question by other research.

Armed conflict is a complex global issue that has far-reaching implications for people and societies. From human rights abuses and the targeting of civilian populations to forced displacement and devastation of economic infrastructure, it harbors serious humanitarian and security concerns with devastating consequences for the affected communities and regional stability. The root causes of armed conflicts are numerous, and their resolution requires a comprehensive approach that encompasses the promotion of open dialogue and lasting solutions.

In terms of individual motivations, armed conflicts are largely triggered by unmet needs. According to Maslow (1954; 1973), humans have a series of basic needs that must be satisfied in order to thrive, such as the need for safety, social belonging and esteem, as well as self-actualisation. When the ability to meet these basic needs is limited, it creates an environment for resentment and mobilization of disenfranchised groups that may resort to violence in the pursuit of their goals.

At the level of the state, armed conflicts can be triggered by the aspiration of dominant states to assume the position of world leader or hegemon due to their dissatisfaction with the existing international system or status quo. This can lead to direct contests between the dominant state(s) and a rising challenger, so-called hegemonic wars.

The ICRC classifies situations of armed conflict based on factual determinations and legal criteria established in IHL, which determines whether or not it is an international armed conflict (IAC) or non-international armed conflict (NIAC). Today, there are over 110 NIACs and 60 IACs globally that the ICRC is monitoring.

A country that intentionally lowers its currency value by altering the exchange rate with other currencies can benefit from improved export competitiveness. However, it can also lead to higher prices and less purchasing power domestically, and it often sparks trade wars.

Devaluation is distinct from appreciation, which happens naturally due to market forces in floating exchange rate systems. Rather, it’s a policy decision made by a central bank or government to reduce the value of a currency in order to stimulate economic growth or address trade imbalances.

For example, say Panama pegs its currency (the balboa) to the US dollar at a fixed rate of 10 units to 1 USD. When Panama decides to devalue its currency, it would change that fixed ratio and make the dollar worth fewer balboa. Consequently, the price of Panamanian goods in foreign markets would decline and its exports more competitive globally. This improves its balance of trade (exports minus imports) and helps reduce its deficit with other countries.

But a devaluation has its risks, especially for a nation that has significant foreign-denominated debt, as servicing those obligations becomes more expensive when the currency loses value. In addition, the increased cost of imports can trigger inflation, leading to wage demands and straining the local economy. Lastly, it’s critical to be aware of the implications of a currency devaluation as you plan international investments, trade, and business expansion.

Whether they’re addressing climate change, global health or business leadership, summits offer an opportunity for leaders to gather and advance solutions to the world’s most urgent problems. But as the pace of change accelerates, can summits keep up? New leadership, expanded participation from emerging powers and reframed conversations may help.

The inaugural GIID Global Summit brought together leaders of both long-established and emergent innovation districts around the world to explore the latest research on their evolution and key drivers. The Summit was the first to be specifically tailored to the needs and ambitions of these distinctive urban geographies for innovation.

A year after the Paris Agreement, this UN ocean conference will focus high-level attention on the threats facing the world’s seas: bleached coral reefs, declining fish supply, and rising sea levels. With ocean-related greenhouse gas emissions responsible for most of global warming, this gathering will set a crucial agenda for advancing climate action in 2025.

The Global Summit features renowned speakers, interactive sessions and workshops, networking opportunities, exclusive merchandise, and more. Attendees can participate in the event’s live studio audience at Willow Creek Community Church in South Barrington, Illinois and join in the global conversation with hundreds of other host sites. Recordings of the Summit are also distributed to reach a broader audience over time. The Summit aims to equip participants with powerful inspirations and practical tools to prepare for, respond to and lead ongoing transformations in today’s challenging business landscape.

Debt can be a vital tool for countries to finance development and provide social services, but it becomes a burden when it’s growing too fast. This is the case in many developing economies, where debt is on a dangerous rise – with consequences for global growth and the world’s poorest people.

The roots of today’s debt crisis go back nearly 30 years. When the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries quadrupled oil prices in 1973, OPEC nations deposited much of their new wealth in Western commercial banks. The banks, seeking investments for this money, lent it to developing countries. Many of these loans were made hastily and with little scrutiny. Some of the funds were used for projects that did not benefit the poor, such as armaments or failed large-scale development programs. Others were diverted into speculative investments and corruption.

Today, the world faces a fourth wave of rapid debt accumulation in emerging and developing countries. This debt build-up is more severe than previous ones, mainly because it has happened at a time of weak growth prospects and elevated global risks.

Public debt is on a steep upward trend in most countries, with two-thirds of the 175 developing economies we study now carrying higher debt levels than before COVID-19 and borrowing at a faster pace. In addition, the cost of servicing external debt has risen sharply, reflecting rising net interest costs in advanced economies and higher inflation. Private-sector debt is increasing in some large emerging markets and developing countries, such as Brazil or India, while falling in others, such as Colombia or Thailand.

As the world becomes increasingly interconnected through trade and commerce, travel and migration, global climate change and social media, it is important for governments and businesses to understand international relations. This field examines the interactions between nations and their effect on global politics, economics, governance, security, diplomacy and culture. Students who choose a degree in international relations build a foundation of analytical skills that can be applied to a variety of careers like foreign service, business, intelligence, politics and nonprofit work.

International relations also explores the relationships between people from diverse cultures who live and work in different countries. This perspective is important, as it highlights that a country’s culture can impact how its citizens interact with each other and other nations. In addition, it can influence a nation’s views on issues and how those views affect policymaking.

While studying international relations, students learn the fundamental concepts of polarity and power. They also analyze theories such as the balance of power, a concept popularized prior to World War I, which believed that balancing power blocs would create stability and prevent war. Other influential theories include realism, liberalism, Marxism and constructivism.

Another essential aspect of this field is a commitment to personal growth. Those who study international relations gain a better understanding of the backgrounds and perspectives of people from many cultures, which can improve communication between individuals and nations. This can lead to more effective diplomatic solutions and a more peaceful world.

International alliance is a system of military and political relationships between states. It is a key element of global power politics, and it allows states to pursue complex grand strategies. It is difficult, if not impossible – certainly in the modern world – for a single state to seek global, or even regional, primacy on its own. Such a quest is usually enabled by an intricate network of partnerships, as was the case in the Cold War coalitions or in more ancient times, when the Indian strategist Kautilya (reigned c. 321–c. 297 bce) advocated the art of “the enemy of one’s enemy being one’s friend.”

As alliances multiply, their benefits may also become problematic. They do not come for free and they often require sacrifices of domestic interests. They can also become dangerous if countries rely too heavily on alliance-derived gains and develop dangerous habits. This is why alliance policy needs to be constantly reevaluated and re-calibrated.

Another potential problem is that alliances can encourage devolutionary movements by empowering local groups that feel disconnected from central governments or want greater autonomy. This can result in a widening of regional identity and the emergence of new territorial disputes among alliance members. It is also possible that alliances may be harmed by the behavior of individual members, such as when some alliance partners play a double game or are tempted to pursue their own geopolitical interests at the expense of their shared commitments.

An agreement reached between States or non-State parties to a conflict in order to bring an end to a non-international armed conflict.

Peace agreements are often the first step in a complex peace process, and they can determine whether a later framework or comprehensive peace agreement will be possible. They signal that progress is being made in resolving the conflict and help to build trust in a future without violence.

They may include provisions on power-sharing, elections and nation building. They also commonly address the social and structural roots of a conflict. These are the issues that often lie at the heart of protracted conflicts, especially those involving high levels of violence. Such issues include the activation of latent cultural identities to create power bases that can access and control resources, such as minerals; and the incentives to engage in horrific crimes, which reinforce those identities.

Creating conditions for sustainable peace depends on addressing these factors in a way that is mutually beneficial to all. For example, enabling the free flow of trade can unlock investment opportunities, improve the business climate and stimulate growth. Reducing barriers to trade is a key element of any peace agreement. It can also enable countries to benefit from the global value chain and develop a more interconnected world.