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Nuclear threat

A nuclear weapon creates an explosion that is much more powerful than the blast from a conventional explosive like TNT. The explosion gives off four types of energy: a blast wave, intense heat, light and radiation. Nuclear weapons can be in the form of bombs or missiles.

The most serious impact of a nuclear attack is the lethal radioactive ‘fallout’ that would spread out from the point of detonation. This ‘mushroom cloud’ could be visible for many kilometres downwind and contain dangerous radioactive material with harmful health effects. It is estimated that tens to hundreds of millions of people could die immediately from blast, fire and radiation. This death toll would be supplemented by the destruction of vital infrastructure – health care, water, food and energy supply systems – that would leave the survivors to cope in a brutalised and traumatised shattered world violently thrown back into a pre industrial age.

Implicit or explicit nuclear threats have been the default position of states possessing such weapons for decades – they are the essence of deterrence – if you attack us we will destroy your society and most important military assets. But in the hands of terrorists, the rules and limitations set by state militaries might be circumvented. Terrorists may not be concerned about the weight and size constraints of a fabricated nuclear device or the hazardous materials it contains. They might also not be bound by nuclear treaties and agreements.

A Peacekeeping mission is a military and police force sent to monitor the ceasefire in a country that has been at war, or whose government is being forced out by armed rebels. The UN Security Council gives it operational control, and it can be made up of troops from member states who remain members of their own armed forces and obey its instructions, or it can involve a “brigade” drawn from a number of countries that has been established for the purpose, usually with a mix of military and civilian personnel.

Peacekeepers are usually mandated with a number of tasks that range from separating the belligerents and providing law and order to establishing post-conflict institutions and public services, disarming and demobilising former combatants, implementing power-sharing arrangements, delivering humanitarian assistance and helping restore the rule of law. They are often referred to as Blue Berets or Blue Helmets, and they can be composed of soldiers, police officers, or civil police and support staff.

One of the unique strengths of the UN is its ability to deploy a wide variety of troops and civilian police from all over the world to perform peacekeeping missions. However, the nature of these missions has changed significantly since their inception in the aftermath of the Cold War, with a significant shift from narrow ceasefire monitoring deployments to more complex multidimensional missions in volatile and challenging environments. They have also become more politicised, as peacekeeping is now linked to ideas of liberal peace and development.

From the average consumer’s perspective, oil price fluctuation is something to be aware of when filling up at the gas pump. The price of crude oil is determined by thousands of transactions that take place at all points in the world from the oil rigs to your local gasoline station. These behind the scenes factors influence everything from production costs to storage capacity. They also impact the decisions made by producers like the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), independent petro-states like Russia, and private oil-producing firms like ExxonMobil. The laws of supply and demand influence prices, as do natural disasters that could disrupt production and political instability in the region of the world where oil is produced.

Often, the influence of these types of forces on oil prices tends to be relatively short lived once the problem is resolved and oil and product supplies resume their normal flows. However, these kinds of issues have a major impact on the economy of countries that rely heavily on oil revenue for their government spending and general economic development. High prices make it harder for these countries to spend money on worthy projects, and low prices make those projects less financially viable in the long run.

There are a few things that have been shown to help reduce the impact of these behind the scene forces on oil prices, including regular communication between OPEC member countries and restraint in discussing disagreements in public. But these are only partial solutions to a much larger issue that has persisted for decades and will likely continue to have some influence on the global economy.

Foreign policy is the conduct of the nation’s government in relations with other countries. It encompasses a wide variety of activities including diplomacy, defense policy, foreign aid, and national security. Its broadest meaning includes the promotion of America’s values abroad and the development of international institutions that reflect American interests.

Despite globalization, foreign policy remains one of the most challenging, complex, and vital tasks facing the United States. Ultimately, the question is not whether or not the United States should engage in foreign policy; rather, the question is how to best pursue its goals in a rapidly changing world.

Americanists see great virtue in the fact that America’s primacy allows it to set its own goals unconstrained by other nations, international agreements, or institutions. As Charles Krauthammer puts it, “An unprecedentedly dominant United States must reassert its freedom of action.”

Globalists, by contrast, believe that in an age of rapid change, the world needs to create new institutions and regimes that reflect a growing number of voices. As the architects of the European Union, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and International Monetary Fund demonstrate, a more diverse approach to global governance can reduce the chances of cultural and political tactics that sap the strength of the world’s greatest power.

The reality is that the world faces many serious challenges and problems, ranging from climate change to nuclear proliferation to regional instability in Asia. Both Americanists and Globalists are right that it is important for America to continue building partnerships throughout the world to address these challenges, but to do so successfully requires that Washington upholds democratic values while promoting economic growth. Upholding democracy and human rights requires speaking out against abuses in China, Iran, and Russia; maintaining laws that prohibit the provision of security assistance to abusive regimes; and employing a full range of policy carrots and sticks to encourage democratic development and hold rights violators accountable.

Across the globe, growth has slowed this year as higher tariffs and ongoing policy uncertainty slow investment and trade. Weaker global GDP growth is projected to persist this year and next. However, our analysis suggests that a reduction in global trade restrictions and less policy uncertainty could lift world GDP by 0.2 percentage points over the course of 2025 and 2026.

The largest component of GDP is C (consumption), which includes the purchase of durable and nondurable goods and services by households, such as food, jewelry, gasoline, and medical expenses. Another important component of GDP is I (investment). I includes expenditures on fixed assets by businesses and individuals, such as machinery and equipment. It also includes the value of any government investment in infrastructure.

While GDP is an important indicator of economic performance, it has limitations. For one, it relies on recorded transactions and official data, and it does not capture the extent of informal or unrecorded economic activity. In addition, it does not take into account certain phenomena that impact citizens’ well-being, such as pollution from traffic jams or the contribution of unpaid labor. As a result, alternative measures of economic development have emerged. These include the Human Development Index and the Better Life Index, which are designed to measure aspects of well-being that go beyond GDP.

Economic stimulus refers to monetary and fiscal policies that are implemented by governments in order to boost the economy. These policies may include deficit spending and lowering taxes. These policies can be used to help combat a recession or slowdown by encouraging private-sector growth.

Monetary stimulus, which is most often carried out by central banks, usually involves lowering interest rates so that it becomes cheaper to borrow money. This encourages people to spend more money, which can stimulate the economy. Fiscal stimulus, on the other hand, is a more direct government effort. For example, the government may offer tax credits or lowered payroll taxes as a way to spur consumer spending. This can help businesses, which then hire more workers and produce more goods. This creates a virtuous cycle of spending, which can then help the economy grow and avoid a recession or slowdown.

However, some economists are skeptical of economic stimulus efforts because they may not work. For example, they might not work if consumers don’t actually spend the extra money they are given by the government. Also, deficit-funded spending can cause higher borrowing costs, which would make it harder for businesses to obtain financing and increase their debt burdens.

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A State visit is a formal visit by the head of state (or their representative) of a sovereign country to another sovereign country. State visits are primarily characterised by an emphasis on official public ceremonies.

Visiting heads of state are welcomed by the monarch (or, when he or she is not present, his or her Lord-in-Waiting). The host monarch and/or government act as official hosts. The visit can also include a parliamentary element, with the visiting head of state or prime minister being invited to speak in both Houses of Parliament if desired.

As part of the visit, the visitor is usually greeted with an arrival ceremony at the Palace. This may include an inspection of the guard of honour, followed by a welcome from the monarch and the visiting head of state or prime minister.

After a tour of the Palace, the visitor is hosted at a State banquet. This is a formal occasion, with around 150 guests invited on the basis of their cultural or diplomatic links with the country being visited.

Depending on the programme of the visit, other ceremonial events might occur, such as the rekindling of an Eternal Flame at Yad Vashem (a typical component of a visit by the emperor and empress of Japan) or a wreath-laying ceremony at a memorial to those who lost their lives in wars fought between the two countries. Sometimes, the Royal Collection arranges an exhibition of themed items for visitors to view – such as when the King and Queen hosted the emperor and empress and the amir sheikh and sheikha of Qatar in 2024.

Invasion refers to a large-scale military operation in which the armed forces of one geopolitical entity enter another territory with the intent of conquest or occupation. This can occur within the framework of a war or as an independent conflict. Invasions typically result in the reshaping of the culture and political landscape of the invaded nation.

Invasions may be carried out by land, sea, or air, with each method having arguments both in favour of and against it. Invasion by air usually entails the use of aircraft to transport troops into the target country, or it may involve the dropping of troops from an aircraft. In the past, invasions by sea or land were often accompanied by other forms of attack on the target in order to “soften up” the country and deprive it of resources; such preparations have been referred to as an act of preemption.

Land-based invasions have been used since the invention of warfare, often involving a straightforward crossing of borders or other demarcated zones. Invasion by land can be complicated by the existence of defensive emplacements and structures, which can prove difficult to overcome. Communication between the invaders and defenders has historically been crucial, and the development of voice or morse code communication has allowed even small units of skirmishers to relay defensive positions to their commanders.

Arguments in favour of an invasion by sea usually include the ability to perform a surprise attack from sea, or that the defences of the target nation are insufficient to repel such an attack. The logistical problems associated with this form of invasion, however, have made it a rare form of invasion.

Ethnic cleansing (from the Greek prefix genos, meaning race or tribe, and Latin suffix cide, meaning killing) describes extreme forms of violence and persecution motivated by racial or ethnic animosities. In the most precise sense, it involves the indiscriminate expulsion or mass murder of members of a particular group in order to alter the population composition in favor of another, often through destroying their religious and cultural monuments, places of worship and cemeteries. Ethnic cleansing can occur during international armed conflicts as well as in times of peace, and can be punished under the Statute of the International Criminal Court if certain preconditions are met.

The term was coined by Raphael Lemkin in 1944. He developed it in response to the genocidal policies of the Nazis against Jews during World War II and other examples throughout history, including the destruction of Carthage by the Romans, the massacre of Poles in Volhynia by the Soviets in 1943, and the forced expulsions of the indigenous populations of Bosnia and Yugoslavia in the 1990s.

In 1948, the UN General Assembly passed the Genocide Convention and made it a crime under international law. It has been ratified by 153 States. The ICJ has established that the prohibition on genocide is a peremptory norm of international law (or ius cogens), and States cannot deviate from it. However, the distinction between genocide and other types of mass atrocities is contested by many experts, and has become an issue of ongoing debate.

The last year has been a tumultuous one for cryptocurrency and digital asset markets, with volatility and scandals contributing to trillions in losses. As such, calls for improved regulatory protections have become a lot louder.

Regulations can help balance innovation with investor and consumer protection, financial transparency, and systemic stability. Governments have begun asserting clearer authority over how crypto is issued, traded, and taxed.

For example, the U.S. recently passed the GENIUS Act and other legislation to provide more robust regulation of stablecoins and digital assets, with requirements for full reserve backing, monthly audits, and anti-money laundering compliance. Meanwhile, the EU’s unified Markets in Crypto-Assets (MiCA) regulation aims to reduce regulatory fragmentation by defining how blockchain assets are treated under relevant securities and commodities laws.

At the state level, New York has established a comprehensive set of regulations for digital assets that provides a friendly environment for market participants, while ensuring customer protection. Other states have passed or proposed more restrictive rules that treat digital assets as property for tax purposes, while also requiring money transmitter licensing and imposing Know Your Customer norms.

Federally, the CFTC retains jurisdiction over digital commodity markets, while the SEC has authority over ICOs and other offerings that qualify as securities. The pending CLARITY Act would further clarify these roles and provide greater coordination between federal agencies. Additionally, the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) continues to apply its sanctions compliance standards to transactions involving crypto.